Volume 8

Issue 1-2: Exiles, Motherland and Social Change

Asis, Maruja M.B.
"Introduction," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 1-17, 1999.

Salazar, Zeus A.
"The Exile in Philippine History," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 19-64, 1999.

Exile migration in Philippine history is examined in this article from earliest times to the present. The exile experience has assumed different forms, meanings and impact on individuals and the society left behind in different periods. Up until 1588, i.e., up until the end of the Manila ethnic state, exiles (who were either banished or were self-exiles) moved about in the familiar Indo-Malayan world, and thus, their exile did not necessarily uproot them from a familiar culture. Exile took on a different meaning with the arrival of colonial powers, particularly from 1872, when political exiles became numerous. The article reexamines the external exile of the ilustrados and propagandistas as well as the internal exile of those who were outside the colonial structure. The same analysis is applied to the different exiles during the American occupation, the Japanese occupation, and contemporary exiles. More than place, the author discusses separation and exile from the well-spring of kalinangang bayan (culture of the people) and Inang Bayan (Motherland).

Teodoro, Noel V.
"Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 65-82, 1999.

This article focuses on the experiences of the ilustrados as exiles in Spain. Censorship was an important factor in the decision of several ilustrados to leave the country. In addition to the notable propagandistas, Jaena, del Pilar, and Rizal, the article also mentions others who were part of the Filipino community in Spain. In their campaign for reforms, the ilustrados worked hard to correct racist images drawn by Spanish writers about the Philippines and the Filipinos. Together with progressive Spaniards, they presented their demands for assimilation, good governance, and representation in the Cor-tés. The newspaper La solidaridad and the founding of masonic organizations were the venues for the reforms waged by the ilustrados. Rizal later concluded that they needed to return to the Motherland and to initiate change from within.

Llanes, Ferdinand C.
"Propagandista and Deportado: Return to the Motherland, ca. 1888-1892," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 83-100, 1999.

This article links the return of the propagandistas from Spain with the "Calamba Period," which the author proposes as a critical period in the shift in the aspirations and strategies of the Spain-based propagandistas, the principales and the Filipino people. The parallels in the lives of the propagandistas as exiles in a foreign land, and those of the deportados as exiles in their own land pointed to the need for a more radical agenda. The significance of the "Calamba Period" and the political as well as cultural dimensions of the return to the Motherland are elaborated in the article.

Camagay, Ma. Luisa T.
"Mariano Ponce: Emissary to Japan," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 101-115, 1999.

A former propagandista based in Spain, Mariano Ponce moved to Hong Kong and was later sent to Japan to work for the revolutionary government. His background in the Propaganda Movement served him well for the work that he was tasked to do in Japan. Ponce met other prominent Asians in Japan, among them, Sun Yat-sen, who were also engaged in nationalistic struggles. Ponce’s mission in Japan, his attempts to carry them out, the views of Japanese officials and media about the struggle for Philippine independence, and some details on Ponce’s personal life are discussed in the article.

Navarro,  Atoy M.
"Philippines-Marianas Relations in History: Some Notes on Filipino Exiles in Guam," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 117-130, 1999.

This article situates the nature of the exile of Filipinos to the Marianas in the shared history of the Philippines and the Marianas. The links between the two can be traced to as far back as the voyages and travels of the Austronesians and Nusantao from the Philippines to the Marianas. The nature of exile was different before and after the arrival of the colonizers. The Marianas became a place of exile for Filipinos who opposed or criticized the Spanish and American colonial governments. A discussion is devoted to Apolinario Mabini, considered to be the most prominent exile at the time of the American rule in the Philippines.

Jose, Ricardo T.
"Exile as Protest: Artemio Ricarte," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 131-156, 1999.

This article provides an analysis of the factors behind the various exile experiences of General Artemio Ricarte, who in his lifetime fought against the Spanish and American colonizers. It was during the American rule that he chose a life of exile rather than to take the oath of allegiance to the United States. His place in Philippine history, however, has been clouded by his association with the Japanese Occupation forces during World War II. Ricarte’s role and place in the fight for Philippine independence, the influence of his exile on resistance movements, his motivations for supporting the Japanese, the impact of his return to the Philippines, and his realization of the destructive impact of Japanese occupation on the Filipino people are detailed in the article.

Teodoro, Noel V.
"Pensionados and Workers: The Filipinos in the United States, 1903-1956," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 157-178, 1999.

Between 1903 and 1956, there were two groups of Filipino "migrants" to the United States: the government scholars known as pensionados and workers. Distinct also were their experiences as migrants as well as the role that they played in the Philippines (in the case of the pensionados) and the United States (in the case of the workers). The article raises the question of rootednes to or estrangement from Filipino culture in assessing the influence of these migrants on their country of origin.

Jose, Ricardo T.
"Governments in Exile ," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 179-193, 1999.

World War II gave rise to two episodes of government-in-exile: the Commonwealth government headed by Quezon, and the government headed by Laurel in the last days of the Japanese Occupation in the Philippines. In both instances, the decision for the government to go into exile was made by outside forces, the United States in the case of Quezon, and Japan in the case of Laurel. The conditions that led to the formation of the government-in-exile, the functions that they served while in exile, and the views of the Filipino people towards them are discussed in the article.

Militante, Clarissa V.
"The Exiles in China," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 195-207, 1999.

This article discusses the events that led to the accidental exile of three student leaders in China in the 1970s, their extended stay in China until 1985-1986, and their decision to remain there. The experiences and lessons that they learned from living in a socialist society, deciding between returning to the Philippines or staying in China, and the views of the exiles and other activists on the contributions of the different actors to the political struggle in the Philippines are detailed in the article.

Abubakar, Carmen A.
"MNLF Hijrah: 1974-1996," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 209-221, 1999.

The experiences of a Muhajir (migrant or exile) are discussed in this article against the larger canvas of the so-called Moro problem, the formation of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), the exile of the leaders of MNLF to other countries to support the movement and to draw international attention to the Moro struggle, and the peace process and its immediate aftermath. It would seem that the exile of MNLF leaders contributed to the "internationalization" of the Moro problem and its solution. The Organization of Islamic Conference, Libya and Indonesia played a role in the negotiations between MNLF and the government.

Sta. Romana-Cruz, Neni
"Ninoy Aquino: Not a Mere Exile," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 223-237, 1999.

His exile to the United States was a learning experience for Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr., considered to be the most prominent critic of the Marcos administration. Aquino experienced much freedom in exile, but it did not occur to him to stay permanently in the United States. In fact, he was plagued by the thought that he might be a mere exile if he stayed away from the country for too long. When he returned to the Philippines, it is said that his commitment to the non-violent path of change was one of the lessons of his exile. Aquino was not just a mere exile for the Filipinos; instead, he was instrumental in the people power revolution that restored democracy to the country.

Maglipon, Jo-Ann Q.
"A Community of Exiles," Vol. 8 (1-2), p. 239-267, 1999.

This article deals with the community of political exiles in Utrecht, the Netherlands. This group of exiles, made up mainly by members of the Communist Party of the Philippines, has been at odds with the government since the Marcos administration which hunted it down during martial law. The breakdown of peace talks during the Aquino administration further con-tributed to the exile of key persons to Utrecht in the late 1980s. This article describes the exiles’ political work and continuing links with the Philippines, the unifying and divisive forces within their community, how exile has affected their personal and family life, their encounters with racism in the host country, and the break in the Communist Party of the Philippines.